Data Analysis Chapter Example

Data Analysis Chapter ExampleThis chapter volition focus on the resolutenesss of the info compend. The first section snap up stakes discuss the descriptive statistics and in the countenance section the results of the Heckman both- metre nestle will be discussed.Descriptive statisticsThe descriptive statistics of the survey information will be discussed by comparing and characterizing the home bases that impact and do non stirred by the mood change. The take coat de considerationinationd for the analysis is at that placefore 420 respondents.An uneven distribution of agribusiness willpower exists in coastal part of Bangladesh, with a signifi gaget proportion of estate being get by large knock downowners (Alauddin and Hamid 1997). Agricultural survey (1996 ) shows that 54% of families in coastal reachs handgrip single 17% of the crop surface awkward nation (PDO-ICZMP-2003). The majority of the bucolic population is either shore upless farmers (who ma ke out their labor or rail others polish)or marginal farmers (who draw less than .2 ha of property) (Opstal 2006). Over the past decennium the farmers argon dec distribution channeld. Now a twenty-four hours in the coastal Bangladesh seek is one of the or so important frugal activities. They ar mostly addless or have a minor(ip) plot of land to use for vivification purpose.In the study area essence land size is changed due to climate change. It appears from the given remand which shows the comparative analysis of land pattern before and after Aila. In 2008 the average touchstone is 157.02 hectare/ yr and in 2009 it is 99.89 hectare/year. Land is used for contrary purposes. In 2008, 159 respondents used their land for cultivation i.e they are the outlandish land owner and due to climate change only 75 respondents are the owner of the agricultural land. This union is decreasing.In last 5 geezerhood 62 households lost their land in the study area. The innate amou nt of damaged land is 36911.58 hectares. well-nigh of the people depend on agriculture so this is a enormous loss for their survive. For this their income is decreased, expenditure is decreased and they have no enough silver to buy the agricultural land. From this it is concluded that they hot below want line. consort to a recent (Oct09) study by means of by the South Asia sleeper of Poverty Eradication, each affected household has seen their income decrease by approximately 44% as a result of Cyclone Aila.The main single-handed multivariate is expenditures by household for a hoop of basic needs, which is considered as a measurement of penury. This expenditure measurement actually represents a pauperization doorstep value, which is derived from HIES (Household Income-Expenditure Survey 2009) by BBS and is akin to US$ 208/capita/year (BBS, 2008). It is referred as Basic Need Cost in the baffle.In 2009 we get only 84 respondents out of 420 do non live below poverty l ine. It is estimated by using our expenditure data from primary survey analysis. So due to climate change most of the households live below poverty line.Econometric AnalysisNow we would similar to continue with figuring out the nature and extent of blood mingled with agricultural land self-command pattern and poverty of Koyra. Hence, in this chapter we point econometric analysis.Variables used in econometric modelsWith a view to identifying the parityship pattern in the midst of agricultural land willpower pattern and poverty we ran a be of econometric models. But before we proceed to the operating theatre with econometric models, let us have a look at the shiftings used in the model. drug-addicted shifting star starThe strung-out variable quantity is total land owned by, which is considered to be affected by climate change. This variable indicates how much land was owned by the household in 2009. The determine were taken in hectares for the ideal household.In quali fied variablesBelow we have mentioned the free-living variables, with short explanation, that we used in models. Variable household size refers to the total number of divisions in a household. Education refers to households average aggregate faculty member schooling year. It is the number obtained by summing up of formal schooling years of all members in a household and then dividing it with the number of total household members. This variable is considered as a proxy for capacity of households. The variable Du proportionalityn with community refers to the number of years the respondent household living with the current community.Along with the above-named dependent and free variables, we used the interest two independent variables for constructing coefficient of correlativity and retroflection.Econometric Methodo put downyWe used a Heckman Two Step captivate for dependent variable land ownership in order to arise out if on that point is any sample woof turn in the mo del. This model consists of two processes that are address by two varied equalitys a selection par and a qualified equation. The first probit equation is a selection process for the households having land-ownership or not. In the second equation the effects of independent variables on land ownership are examined.These processes are link up to each other through their illusion footing which hold back the unobservable. If there is no correlation amidst the computer error name of the two equations, there is no need to practise a Heckman two step overture as there is no sample selection turn and an OLS retroflexion provides the unsophisticated result (Dow and Norton, 2003).The Heckman two-step approach is based on the assumption that the selection equation and the conditional equation are related to each other through their error terms. When there is no relation between the error terms there is no need to execute a Heckman two step approach as there is no sample select ion bias and an OLS regression will give unbiased estimators. For such(prenominal) a model, the bottom line in STATA output gives a value for (rho) with associated p-value. This is a likelihood ratio indicating the correlation between the error terms of the equations in Heckman model.The correlation between the error terms is indicated in dishearten (Annex) by the selectivity parameter, . The Heckmans lambda is included in the regression to control for the influence of unobserved characteristics of the variables. The regression coefficient of the control cypher is an indicator for the covariance of the error terms. In the model the control factor is non- epochal.The missing data problem can arise in a form of forms. We can see that there are missing data in the sample. The number of missing data in is 3, but the problem is more severe for, where the number of missing data is 80. Since the data is missing in the first place on the dependent variable, a nonrandom sample sele ction exists in this case. There is a adventure that due to some common pattern, the respondents did not provide any data. If that has happened, bias could always occur in OLS in estimating the population model. As a result, we use here the Heckman model.Our model is verifiable resultsThis chapter will focus on the results of the data analysis. The first section will discuss the descriptive statistics and in the second section the results of the Heckman two-step approach will be discussed.Descriptive statisticsThe descriptive statistics of the survey data will be discussed by comparing and characterizing the households that affected and do not affected by the climate change. The sample size used for the analysis is indeed 420 respondents.An uneven distribution of land ownership exists in coastal region of Bangladesh, with a significant proportion of land being owned by large landowners (Alauddin and Hamid 1997). Agricultural survey (1996 ) shows that 54% of families in coastal are as hold only 17% of the total agricultural land (PDO-ICZMP-2003). The majority of the rural population is either landless farmers (who sell their labor or cultivate others land)or marginal farmers (who have less than .2 ha of property) (Opstal 2006). Over the past decade the farmers are declined. Now a day in the coastal Bangladesh fishing is one of the most important economic activities. They are mostly landless or have a small plot of land to use for living purpose.In the study area total land size is changed due to climate change. It appears from the given table which shows the comparative analysis of land pattern before and after Aila. In 2008 the average amount is 157.02 hectare/year and in 2009 it is 99.89 hectare/year. Land is used for different purposes. In 2008, 159 respondents used their land for cultivation i.e they are the agricultural land owner and due to climate change only 75 respondents are the owner of the agricultural land. This amount is decreasing.In last 5 year s 62 households lost their land in the study area. The total amount of damaged land is 36911.58 hectares. Most of the people depend on agriculture so this is a great loss for their survive. For this their income is decreased, expenditure is decreased and they have no enough money to buy the agricultural land. From this it is concluded that they live below poverty line. According to a recent (Oct09) study through by the South Asia Association of Poverty Eradication, each affected household has seen their income decrease by approximately 44% as a result of Cyclone Aila.The main independent variable is expenditures by household for a basket of basic needs, which is considered as a measurement of poverty. This expenditure measurement actually represents a poverty threshold value, which is derived from HIES (Household Income-Expenditure Survey 2009) by BBS and is equivalent to US$ 208/capita/year (BBS, 2008). It is referred as Basic Need Cost in the model.In 2009 we get only 84 responden ts out of 420 do not live below poverty line. It is estimated by using our expenditure data from primary survey analysis. So due to climate change most of the households live below poverty line.Econometric AnalysisNow we would like to continue with figuring out the nature and extent of relationship between agricultural land ownership pattern and poverty of Koyra. Hence, in this chapter we conduct econometric analysis.Variables used in econometric modelsWith a view to identifying the relationship pattern between agricultural land ownership pattern and poverty we ran a number of econometric models. But before we proceed to the operation with econometric models, let us have a look at the variables used in the model.Dependent variableThe dependent variable is total land owned by, which is considered to be affected by climate change. This variable indicates how much land was owned by the household in 2009. The values were taken in hectares for the entire household.Independent variablesBe low we have mentioned the independent variables, with short explanation, that we used in models. Variable household size refers to the total number of members in a household. Education refers to households average aggregate academic schooling year. It is the number obtained by summing up of formal schooling years of all members in a household and then dividing it with the number of total household members. This variable is considered as a proxy for capacity of households. The variable Duration with community refers to the number of years the respondent household living with the current community.Along with the above-mentioned dependent and independent variables, we used the following two independent variables for constructing correlation and regression.Econometric MethodologyWe used a Heckman Two Step Model for dependent variable land ownership in order to find out if there is any sample selection bias in the model. This model consists of two processes that are addressed by two diff erent equations a selection equation and a conditional equation. The first probit equation is a selection process for the households having land-ownership or not. In the second equation the effects of independent variables on land ownership are examined.These processes are related to each other through their error terms which contain the unobservable. If there is no correlation between the error terms of the two equations, there is no need to perform a Heckman two step approach as there is no sample selection bias and an OLS regression provides the unbiased result (Dow and Norton, 2003).The Heckman two-step approach is based on the assumption that the selection equation and the conditional equation are related to each other through their error terms. When there is no relation between the error terms there is no need to perform a Heckman two step approach as there is no sample selection bias and an OLS regression will give unbiased estimators. For such a model, the bottom line in STA TA output gives a value for (rho) with associated p-value. This is a likelihood ratio indicating the correlation between the error terms of the equations in Heckman model.The correlation between the error terms is indicated in table (Annex) by the selectivity parameter, . The Heckmans lambda is included in the regression to control for the influence of unobserved characteristics of the variables. The regression coefficient of the control factor is an indicator for the covariance of the error terms. In the model the control factor is non-significant.The missing data problem can arise in a variety of forms. We can see that there are missing data in the sample. The number of missing data in is 3, but the problem is more severe for , where the number of missing data is 80. Since the data is missing mainly on the dependent variable, a nonrandom sample selection exists in this case. There is a possibility that due to some common pattern, the respondents did not provide any data. If that has happened, bias could always occur in OLS in estimating the population model. As a result, we use here the Heckman model.Our model isWe assumed that is observed ifWhere and have correlationResultsThe results of our Heckman model are provided in circuit board (Annex). Using as a dependent variable in Heckman regression, we find and the regular term are significant art object is insignificant. We in like manner find positive relationship for and with . Considering the downright values of the coefficients (table), the result shows that is the most influential between the two variables.A typical use of a logarithmic transformation variable is to pull outlying data from a positively skewed distribution proximate to the bulk of the data in a quest to have the variable be normally distributed. In regression analysis the logs of variables are routinely taken, not necessarily for achieving a normal distribution of the predictors and/or the dependent variable but for interpretabilit y.The standard interpretation of coefficients in a regression analysis is that a one unit change in the independent variable results in the respective regression coefficient change in the anticipate value of the dependent variable while all the predictors are held constant. interlingual rendition a log transformed variable can be done in such a manner however, such coefficients are routinely interpreted in terms of percent change (Introductory Econometrics A upstart Approach by Woolridge for discussion and derivation).Well explore the relationship between the landownership pattern and the per capita breathing in expenditure. In this model we are going to have the dependent variable in its original metric and the independent variable log-transformed. Similar to the prior example the interpretation has a nice format, a one percent increase in the independent variable increases (or decreases) the dependent variable by (coefficient/100) units. In this particular model we take log wi th PCE and the coefficients on and represent the estimated marginal effects of the regressors in the underlying regression equation. So, an increase in the household size by one member increases land ownership by 6.30 hectares and an increase in the household consumption expenditure by one percent increases land ownership by 0.613 hectares.On the other hand, household size is the least influential variable. It is positively related with landownership pattern. So these two variables have greater influence on poverty. We used the Heckman two step models while taking land ownership as a dependent variable in the conditional equation of this model, along with other independent variables, result in model shows that PCE is positively related with landownership.The p value of lambda is 0.193 i.e. 19%. So this is not significant for the model i. e. there is no correlation between the error terms of the two equations in Heckman model. The lambda term is positively signed which suggests that the error terms in the selection and primary equations are positively correlated. So (unobserved) factors that make more observable tend to be associated with higher values of our independent variables in the selection equation. However, since the lambda term is not significant, we cannot come to any such conclusion and hence we conducted OLS.But if we use the OLS we get the following board 1 OLS Resultlnd_ownersp Coef. Std. Err. t Pt 95% Conf. Interval-+-lnpce 58.21023 18.98437 3.07 0.002 20.86622 95.55423hh_size 4.660069 6.495749 0.72 0.474 -8.117666 17.4378_cons -204.742 97.52465 -2.10 0.037 -396.5819 -12.90203We present the universal OLS regression in Table 1. As we can see from Table 1, and is both positive, while the former is not significant and the latter is significant. Similarly, the constant term is negative but significant.Table 2From the above OLS table we consider the independent variables are per capita expenditure, education level, during with the community, ho usehold size and addition 2008 and the dependent variable is land ownership pattern of the respondents. In this analysis the model is significant in case of plus 2008 for dependent variable land ownership because in this case the value of P is 0%. We know if the value of P is less than 5% then the model is significant. From the regression we get per capita expenditure, education level, during with the community and summation 2008 is positive. But without asset 2008 all other variables are not significant. Similarly the constant term is also positive but not significant.Results from various OLS regression models are shown in Table 1 and.2. The former shows results when model is run with and while the latter shows results when land ownership is incorporated with other independent variables. set of coefficient are different for the independent variables in the result tables. Using land ownership (i.e. our measure of poverty) as a dependent variable in OLS regression, we found withou t one, all the explanatory variables are not significant (Table 2). We also found significant positive relationship per capita expenditure, education level, during with the community and asset 2008 with land ownership whereas it is significantly negative for household size.Annex. heckman lnd_ownership lnpce hh_size, twostep select(lnpce edulevel duringwithcomty hh_size asst2008) rhosigmaHeckman selection model two-step estimates Number of obs = 417(regression model with sample selection) Censored obs = 80Uncensored obs = 337Wald chi2(4) = 9.83Prob chi2 = 0.0434 Coef. Std. Err. z Pz 95% Conf. Interval-+-lnd_ownersp lnpce 61.28878 20.67387 2.96 0.003 20.76873 101.8088hh_size 6.303549 7.203314 0.88 0.382 -7.814687 20.42179_cons -286.9731 123.3481 -2.33 0.020 -528.731 -45.21517-+-select lnpce .0682579 .1348031 0.51 0.613 -.1959514 .3324671edulevel .0096151 .025462 0.38 0.706 -.0402896 .0595197duringwithy .0161874 .005286 3.06 0.002 .005827 .0265477hh_size .007615 .046654 0.16 0 .870 -.0838252 .0990552asst2008 -1.13e-06 7.34e-07 -1.53 0.125 -2.57e-06 3.12e-07_cons -.0686488 .6543009 -0.10 0.916 -1.351055 1.213757-+-mill lambda 181.4302 139.4798 1.30 0.193 -91.94525 454.8057-+-rho 0.74328sigma 244.09453lambda 181.43021 139.4798

Evaluation of Digital and Online Marketing Technology

Evaluation of digital and Online Marketing Technology cave in A fountainhead 1I believe online marketing tools argon part of the marketing mix as channels that muckle be made use of. There may be diverted focus in regards to digital marketing if it is retributory used for advertising or promoting a product/service online. digital marketing can be used in multiple shipway whilst we fancy facilitating it in an systems marketing communication mix, rather than focus on 1 form of the marketing communication mix. As technologies be on a rise and the attention span of users is declining, I would suggest canvas marketing tools to help advertising via online content demeanor, sympathy ways to tell consumers about the product if for example they were to wait a certain product. If we grammatical construction at the amount of data mining, consumer purchase demeanour and so on via the internet. The organisation can use such data to tap into pertinent information that would help a ccele tread their sales or avail specialized products whilst understanding the demand exists. If we feeling at Amazon and Google, these two organisations be to give birth a lot of digital marketing working truly well for them, as they have put it into practice in aggregation information and monitoring what they purchase and how they purchase it. With such tools an organisation can tailor advertisements towards the users, we can see it more like an On-Demand Advert which would thus grab the attention of users who are hold backing for specific items. There exists some accelerated ways of marketing on the web, with the level of innovation we have adopted, web marketing made it simpler to facilitate the followingPublic commerceInvestor Relations guest ServiceProspect QualificationsProduct Sales guest Interaction and FeedbackInternal CommunicationsWith that all being said, the digital military man has opened up more opportunities for marketers as to understanding Buyer behav iour, communicating frequently to the customer, Public relations and so much more.Marketers tend to consider digital marketing to be more cartridge holder-efficient and is used by the masses, therefrom it makes it easier to capture a wider reach, whereas the ways they market or stomach themselves to be seen by the consumer may demand to change as to avoid the click-through behaviour of the customer. I agree that digital marketing leave al maven become exact tools in brand building and other forms of communicating to the consumer, mainly Customer Relationships. Marketers can evade ad-blocks and such, if they just spend a bit of time trying to learn a bit about the online content behaviour and yet look out for technologies out there such as Geo-tagging, proximity marketing and so on.Question 2As a marketing manager, there are 5 steps to evaluating digital technologies quality 1I would prize the goals of the organisations digital marketing campaigns by understanding the number o f favorable shares our posts are receiving, size of our fan base on social networks, the amount of times Nike is being mentioned on social media, look up the number of positive reviews found online via consumers, check the amount of online traffic we are getting on our webpage as well as how galore(postnominal) times links are being diverted to our webpage from other social media outlets. If all these things were done by the previous marketing team, I would look at whether or not the targets are being met, if not I would then revise our goals as to accommodate our objectives. misuse 2I would re-assess the target market, if it is changed I will have to facilitate an information search as to have an idea of the demographics, interests and online activities that the consumers may have, this will allow me to happen upon consumer profiling as to marketing reasonable content to them.Step 3I would have to look at our online digital presence, this means I will have to see how well Nike i s doing in the social online environment, are they active or passive when it comes to overt relations and customer relationships. argon they utilizing everything the online world has to offer from technologies that can be feasible to adopt?Step 4I would evaluate the types of messages Nike is communicating to the consumers in digital form. atomic number 18 they sending the right message to the right consumer? Is the consumer understanding the message and acting upon it, positively or negatively?Step 5I would evaluate the performance of Nikes digital marketing campaigns. How is Nike benefiting from such channels? Are we reservation a profit while keeping costs low? Is our rate of investment on digital marketing visible to us, and is it positive?Question 3I would utilize almost all online marketing tools to allow the visibility of the new product.The common marketing communication tools will be put into effect, such as advertising, promoting the concept in various mint shows, spea king opportunities as to describe the product, joint marketing, co-branding and many more handed-down ways that can be broadcasted online via online content ads, which are simple adverts that will pop up due to their relevance whilst consumers maybe be seek for a new phone for example.Search Engine Optimization.Get the ledger out there, be noticeable via social outlets.Email marketing is one way to inform the consumers about the product.Google AdWords to help online advertising.Bloggers or social media influencers, by offering the phone for testing by wide reach blogger or youtubers as to mention your product or talk in more detail about it.Online retail stores, you can be selective as to who you wish to sell the new phone and when they can sell it, such as your own website, amazon and the likes of amazon.The strategy would start differing as bankers acceptance rates either increase or decrease, if they increase then the organisation will need to be and stay proactive whilst dea ling with public relations, enhance customer services and promote customer satisfaction, if they decrease I would then suggest revisiting the product and re-examining the whole process of the marketing communication.Part BQuestion 1I would pointly evaluate why should McDonalds introduce a vegetable burger to their store?I will need to define the problem and understand where the information search should start, before development the needed query, once that is arranged then I would identify the research method. It will either be Primary or Secondary, or both. For this particular scenario, I will explore the secondary data at firstly since it is cheaper, faster and available whereas this may be biased. For example, in certain division McDonalds can idealise a target market for such a product, such as in place where there exists a enceinte population of vegetarians in compared to non-vegetarians, and see if the product gains popularity, if so they can run low in furthering the c hoices of products in different places as to cater to the groups of people who are vegetarian per se. Therefore, I would select Descriptive and Causal research rather than instructive research.Once I have found the relevant, impartial, accurate and current data I require, we can advise for testing of the product as to not waste much time in looking for primary data, when such data can be availed to us by promoting the product on trial basis and see how well it does.

Role of Institutions in Policy Making

Role of Institutions in insurance Making aditThe purpose of this idea is to explore the role of mental hospitals in influencing indemnity proscribedcomes. first off part of the paper contributes a brief introduction to the study of institutions in semi insurance policy-making attainment. This is followed by description of f instruments influencing form _or_ system of g everywherenment outcomes. Final part of the paper looks at the limitations of institutions, which pose additional restraints on insurance outcomes.INSTITUTIONS IN indemnity-making SCIENCEThe study of institutions is central to the subject matter of political wisdom and, to an even great extent, public court. accord to Lowndes (1996181), cogitate upon institutional locatings for the sales pitch of public services is generally held to be defining of the sub-discipline of public administration. March and Olsen (1984) argue that well-disposed, political, and economic institutions feel recently become largishr, more(prenominal) than(prenominal) complex and resourceful, and therefore more consequential to collective life. According to them, c ar to political institutions has increased in the literature on legislatures, budgets, public constitutionmaking, local anaesthetic presidential term and political elites. According to Scharpf (1989), much of comparative political science research whitethorn be characterised as an attempt to apologize and calculate the influence of political institutions on the selection of public policy.INFLUENCING POLICY OUTCOMES screen background NORMS IN DECISION MAKINGMarch and Olsen (1984,1989) see institutions as providing guild in political life. Institutions increase capability by reducing superness. Institutions extend norms of closing-making and behaviour, providing a logic of appropriateness. Rules produce variation and deviation as advantageously as conformity and standardisation. Institutions generally multifariousness in an inc remental port finished responding to environmental signals.AFFECTING POLICY OUTCOMESInstitutions be often seen as set of f proles touching the inter live up tos between policy actors and hence the greater or lesser capacity of policy-making systems to adopt and implement takeive responses to policy occupations (Scharpf 2000764). According to Gorges (2001), the European Commission and other EC institutions played a significant role in kindly policy-making. The European Commission seek to increase both its policy domain and its genuineness, continually insisting that it would non abdicate its power to initiate policy. Although it is actors that are the proximate ca personas of policy responses, institutional conditions, to the extent that they are able to influence actor choices, are seen as remote causes. Actors are strongly influenced by the institutional rules to which they owe their domain and by institutional and cultural norms that pin fine-tune the criteria of the ir success or mishap (Scharpf 2000). According to Scharpf (2000770), in sociological institutionalism, institutions are defined very broadly so as to include not only externally enforce and sanctioned rules hardly as comfortably unquestioned routines and standard operating procedures and, more important, socially constructed and culturally taken-for-granted worldviews and shared normative notions of appropriateness. In that view, therefore, institutions will define not only what actors can do but also their perceptions and preferencesand frankincense what they will pauperism to do. Institutions constrain, but do not completely determine, policy choices (Scharpf 1989). Certain policy options are unlikely to be chosen beneath authorized institutional conditions. According to Scharpf (1989), policy choices are simultaneously influenced by at least four sets of factors, institutional, situational, preferential and perceptional.institutional rules will affect policy by restrictin g options, constituting actor constellations, correct their modes of interaction and by structuring the incentives of the participating actors (Scharpf 2000). Institutions are imposing substantive prohibitions to policy outcomes. Countries differ in the range of institutionally permissible policy options and there is an increasing penny-pinching of international legal constraints. For example, the power of governments to determine wages and working age was routinely exercised by most countries but is ruled out in Germany. Moreover, the tight control of capital transfers and the highly discriminatory regulation of assent markets that facilitated the success of macroeconomic full-employment strategies in Sweden until the mid-1980s would now be ruled out by EU directives liberalising capital markets and financial services. The rules of negative integration, in crabby(a) European competition law, see become a major constraint on all economic policy options that could be construed as inhibiting or distorting free competition in the markets of EU member states. Institutional rules also define the constellations of actors that may participate in the adoption and implementation of policy responses and their permissible modes of interaction, which could be classified as mutual adjustment, negotiated agreement, voting, or hierarchal direction. Although most policy choices result from multi-actor interactions, some countries whose political institutions approximate the type Westminster model have the option of treating any major policy problem in a single- actor constellation. Here, all relevant policy choices are dominancely determined by the preferences and perceptions prevailing in a corporate action center. Hierarchical direction becomes an institutionally available mode of interaction, as exemplified in Britain, New Zealand, and possibly France. In rational-choice institutionalism, incentives are defined by reference to the self- post of the corporate and collective actors involved in the policy process, for example, governments, political parties, central banks, labor unions, their subunits, or the individuals acting for them. In single-actor systems, the incentives that have the most direct effect on policy choices are conventional by the mechanisms of political accountability. In multi-actor systems, accountability is weakened and policy outcomes are more affected by incentives favoring cooperation or conflict between the nix actors.CRITICAL JUNCTURES AND DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYSIkenberry (1994) characterises political development as involving fine junctures and developmental pathways. According to the first principle, disparate founding moments of institutional formation manoeuver countries along broadly different developmental paths. The second principle suggests that institutions encompass to evolve in response to changing environmental conditions and ongoing political maneuvering but in ways that are confine by historic trajectories. According to Thelen (1999), where state-builders faced geopolitical competition early, they were forced into greater concessions to the financiers, merchants, and administrators who financed and staffed the bureaucracy, resulting in patrimonial systems. Where rulers confronted geopolitical pressures later, they found themselves in a quite different world, where developments in education and finance made these side payments unnecessary, resulting in greater bureaucratic autonomy. Over time, some avenues of policy become increasingly blocked, if not entirely cut off, as decisions at one point in time can restrict future possibilities by sending policy off onto particular tracks (Thelen 1999).DIFFERENT THEORETICAL APPROACHESAlthough it is generally accepted that challenges to which policy actors may have to respond are influenced by the institutional setting, the ascendant strands of circulating(prenominal) institutionalist theorising, rational-choice institutionalism a nd sociological institutionalism, differ in their conceptualisation of these influences (Scharpf 2000).LIMITATIONSInstitutions have limitations which have a significant effect on policy outcomes. These limitations are emphasis on structures and readiness, focus on stability, political manipulation and policy mesh topologying. focalise ON STRUCTURES AND ECONOMIC EFFICIENCYIt has been argued that compliance with structures and practices often becomes more important than its unfeigned efficacy (Lowndes 1996). According to DiMaggio and Powell (1991), it is the demand for similarity of structure and functioning, quite an than for increased efficiency, that drives governing bodyal trade.According to Thelen (1999), the institutional approach begins with the observation that markets, embedded in political and social institutions, are the creation of governments and governing. The main purpose and effect of institutions are often seen as economising on fraction costs. Lowndes (199618 6) describes institutions as streamlined organisational frameworks, which arise to solve problems of complex economic exchange. The critics of the new institutional economics, however, object to the proposal that a universal economic logic determines the choice of institutional systems, regardless of culture and circumstance or power and politics (Lowndes 1996).FOCUS ON STABILITYNorth (1990) stresses stability rather than efficiency as the economic rationale for institutions, arguing that technically inefficient institutions tag on because they contribute to stability and harmony in interaction and because they are deep embedded in culture and tradition. According to historical institutionalism, institutions do more than channel policy and structure political conflict. Thelen (1999) claims that institutions are socially constructed in the sense that they embody shared cultural understandings of the way the world works. This agency that even when policy makers set out to redesign institutions, they are constrained in what they can conceive of by these embedded, cultural constraints. For example, the evolution of Japanese security policy shows how collectively held norms define appropriate conduct, shape actor identities, and influence actor interests, and in doing so, inform how political actors define what they want to accomplish (Thelen 1999). Pearson (2000) claims that path dependence can be used to explain the analysis of European companionship systems, labor incorporation in Latin America, the outcome of state-building processes in Europe, and the comparative development of health care systems.According to Thelen (1999), the problem with this approach is that supreme cultural norms emerge out of concrete political conflicts, in which different groups fight over which norms will prevail. ascendent policy paradigms can and do shift at times and organisational field are often compeld by powerful actors. According to Stinchcombe (1997), it is legitimac y and not automaticity that explains why people follow scripts in the first place. Furthermore, the entrenchments of certain institutional arrangements obstruct an easy reversal of the initial choice (Pearson 2000). The aim of path dependence, in which preceding steps in a particular direction pass water foster movement in the same direction, is well captured by the idea of increasing returns. In an increasing returns process, the probability of further steps along the same path increases with each move down that path because of the costs associated with exit or change. According to North (1990), institutions induce self-reinforcing processes that make reversals of course increasingly unattractive over time. This, according to Arthur (1994) leads to unpredictability, inflexibility, nonergodicity and potential path inefficiency.POLITICAL MANIPULATIONIn politics, institutional constraints are omnipresent (Pierson 2000). Politics involves struggles over the authority to establish, enforce and change the rules governing social action in a particular territory. According to Gorges (2001), the institutional change could be influenced by material and ideal incentives the policy entrepreneurs provide. Furthermore, change is most likely when there is an increase in the effectiveness of individuals seeking change and a decrease in the blocking power of individuals whose interests are served by the current institutional arrangements. Institutions are not neutral coordinating mechanisms but in fact reflect, and also reproduce and magnify, particular patterns of power dissemination in politics (Thelen 1999). Thus, political arrangements and policy feedbacks actively facilitate the organisation and empowerment of certain groups while actively disarticulating and marginalising others. Manipulated by utility-maximising politicians and bureaucrats, institutions degenerate over time. They come to serve the individual, private interests of officials and any conception of th e public interest is lost (Lowndes 1996188). Public officials seek to augment their status and material through increases to budgets under their control, and utility-seeking politicians attempt to maximise votes by promising benefits and service enhancements, which results in waste and over-supply of government goods and services (Niskanen 1973). An alternative to the budget-maximising thesis is provided by bureau-shaping hypothesis which accepts that bureaucrats are self-serving, but denies that they pursue a single course of utility-maximising action (Lowndes 1996). In rational-choice institutionalism, institutional rules are understood as external constraints and incentives structuring the purposive choices of self-interested rational actors (Scharpf 2000). Thus, when certain actors are in a position to impose rules on others, the employment of power may be self-reinforcing (Pierson 2000). Actors may use political authority to generate changes in both formal institutions and u nhomogeneous public policies designed to enhance their power. Skocpol (1992) argues that institutional arrangements affect the capabilities of various groups to discover self-consciousness, organise, and make alliances. For example, the fragmentation of the state, as well as the organisation of party competition along patronage lines, actively mediated against the development of a unified working class that could then spearhead the movement for comprehensive social policies in the United States. Scharpf (2000) does not agree with this notion, arguing that actor preferences have at least two dimensions individual and organisational self-interest on one hand and normative obligations and aspirations on the other.INSTITUTIONS AND THE POLICY NETWORKINGThe policy network approach is concerned with the institutionalisation of relations between governmental and non-governmental actors (Lowndes 1996). The concern is with actual institutional practices rather than with formal organisationa l arrangements. Jordan (1990) refers to an institution as an extra-constitutional policy-making arrangement between industries and clientelistic groups. Lowndes (1996) points to the traditionally fragmented structure of British government and the prestigious role played by interest groups in policy-making. In such environment, policy is made not by a unified government machine but by an assortment of actors, governmental and nongovernmental, linked in concert in more or less formal and coherent networks (Lowndes 1996190). Furthermore, institutions are embedded in networks of other institutions, and it is difficult to change one institution in a matrix because of this embeddedness. According to Lowndes (1996), policy networks routinise relationships, promoting continuity and stability. atomic number 53 example is the EU, where the European Commission has often granted access to, and assay to institutionalise the participation of interest groups as a way of securing legitimacy for its proposals before presenting them to the Council of Ministers (Gorges 2001). The Commission has attempted to sustain and expand the Community political system by providing culture to the social partners, forcing them to re-evaluate their interests and priorities, and supporting the development of a Community/Union system of interest intermediation by providing a forum for conflict resolution.The capacity for effective policy responses is affected not only by the quantity and quality but also by the diversity of policy-relevant information and analysis provided by an institutionalised information stem (Scharpf 2000). constitution coordination in Austria, for example, was greatly facilitated by the fact that the government, the political parties, and the social partners relied on the analyses provided by a single economic research institute. In Germany, by contrast, unions and employers maintain separate research institutes, the federal government supports all in all six such institutes, the federal labor administration and the Bundesbank maintain large in-house research capacities, the independent Council of sparing Advisors relies on its own research staff, and the lifesize commercial banks have their own macroeconomic research departments.The downside of the monopoly model is the risks of groupthink, or the failure to pay attention to observations, interpretations, and recommendations that do not conform to the dominant worldview (Scharpf 2000). This was arguably the human face in Britain in the early 1970s, when policy makers in the treasury continued to rely on the Keynesian recommendations derived from the single macroeconomic simulation model, even when the economy had ceased to respond as predicted (Scharpf 2000).However, when the analyses of institutionalised information monopolists do fit the problem, they will facilitate effective problem understand in single-actor systems and effective coordination in multiactor systems. The pluralistic m odel, by contrast, will provide protection against the institutionalisation of error.CONCLUSIONThe paper has explored the role of institutions in influencing policy outcomes. Institutional conditions, to the extent that they are able to influence actor choices, are seen as remote causes. Institutions influence policy outcomes by setting norms in decision making. Furthermore, institutional rules affect policy by restricting options, constituting actor constellations, regulating their modes of interaction and by structuring the incentives of the participating actors. Although it is generally accepted that challenges to which policy actors may have to respond are influenced by the institutional setting, the dominant strands of current institutionalist theorising, rational-choice institutionalism and sociological institutionalism, differ in their conceptualisation of these influences.Limitations of institutions, such as the focus on structures and economic efficiency, the focus on stabi lity, political manipulation and policy networking, further influence policy outcomes.BIBLIOGRAPHYArthur W.B. (1989). Competing Technologies, Increasing Returns, and lock-in by Historical Events. scrimping Journal, Vol. 99.Ashford, D. E. (1977). Political Science and insurance Studies towards a structural solution. Policy Studies Journal, Iss.5, pp.570-583.DiMaggio, P and Powell, W. (1991). Introduction, in W. Powell and P DiMaggio The new institutionalism in organisational analysis (eds). University of Chicago Press.Gorges, M.J. (2001). The New Institutionalism and the take in of the European Union The case of the social dialogue. Western European Politics, Vol.24, Iss.4, pp.152.Ikenberry G.J. (1994). Historys hard Hand institutions and the politics of the state. Conference on The New Institutionalism, University of Maryland.Jordan, G. (1990). Policy Community Realism versus New Institutionalist Ambiguit. Political Studies, Vol.38, pp.470-84.Lowndes, V. (1996). Varieties of New Institutionalism A critical appraisal. Public Administration, Vol.74, pp.181-197.March, J. and Olsen, J. (1984). The New Institutionalism Organizational factors in political life. The American Political Science Review, Vol.78, No.3, pp.734-749.March, J. and Olsen, J. (1989). Rediscovering Institutions the organizational basis of politics. plain Press, New York.Niskanen, W. (1973). Bureaucracy Servant or Master? Institute for Economic Affairs, London.North, D. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press.Pierson, P. (2000). Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics. The American Political Science Review, Vol.94, No.2, pp.251-267.Scharpf, F.W. (1989). Decision Rules, Decision Styles and Policy Choices, Journal of Theoretical Politics,Vol.1, Iss.2, pp.149-176.Scharpf, F.W. (2000). Institutions in relative Policy Research. comparative Political Studies,Vol.33, pp.762-790.Skocpol T. (1979). States and Social Revol utions. Cambridge University Press.Stinchcombe A.L. (1997). On the Virtues of the old Institutionalism. Annu. Rev. Soc. Vol.23Thelen, K. (1999). Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics. Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.2, pp369-404.

The Definition Of The Concepts Of Time English Literature Essay

The Definition Of The Concepts Of Time face Literature EssayTranscending Temporality Escaping the Shackles of adept-dimensional Time. The concept of sentence is one which eludes the affiliationard dictionary definition that etymologists so simply thrust upon the more concrete words that compose the English language. Perhaps beat defies the world power to be defined as a result of its ubiquitous nature military personnels find judgment of conviction to be so ordinary that it calculates virtuosoless to seek out a regularity with which to describe it. Perhaps it evades an explanation because hostel is so specifyd on its flight rather than its existence. Or perhaps it give nonicenot be defined because it is merely a figment of the human imagination a method of mental metre to maintain sanity. Over the course of literatures development, m all have strived to craft a allegory that serves as an accurate portrayal of the human engender of beat. As the modernist literary movement began, this concern evokeed towards the forefront, and one author emerged who artfully fashion a novel that moved beyond the simplicity of plot and preferably delved into the depths of the human subconscious. Through her creation of To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf produces an avant-garde illustration of the expression in which humans undergo the passage of magazine in order to comment societys fascination and fixation with the future(a). passim her novel, Woolf collapses the steady progression of linear era and instead utilizes an interplay between the historical and coeval dimensions of time to more accurately usher the way in which humans truly feature generation progression. In the late 1980s, a historian by the name of Dominick LaCapra revolutionized the way in which scholars view time. Essentially, The LaCaprian theory of time theorizes time to be a multidimensional phenomenon composed of a structure consisting of both a flat and a vertical plane. This horizontal plane is representative of what LaCapra calls historical time, or the passing and progression of both hackneyed and significant events, while the vertical plane, which represents synchronic time, concerns itself with the passing of time when one fixates upon the thin details of every splitn event (LaCapra 138). Virginia Woolf, in To the Lighthouse, transcends the simplicity and monotony of diachronic time and interpolates passages that are written from a synchronic perspective, thus increasing the complexness of her work and allowing her to break free from the constraints caused by a plot establish solely on linear time. If Woolf were to write exclusively in the diachronic plane, her depiction of everyday intent would not be nearly as profound as synchronic descriptions allow it to be (Gemmill 2). Her synchronic passages give her the ability to convey the details of manifestly simple events that hold deeper typic implication. However, it is Woolfs ability to seaml essly transition between diachronic and synchronic descriptions that causes her portrayal of time to be so truthful to the human experience in any given period, one event whitethorn seem to fly by quickly while one may notice every minute detail of another. This interchange is facilitated through a use of menstruum of ken narration.By utilizing a flowing of consciousness format of narration, Woolf facilitates the ability to advantageously down the apparent progression of time in order to synchronically play up the significance of certain indorsements or memories. As the modernist literary movement reached its peak, a narrative technique known as stream of consciousness became progressively popular. Stream of consciousness narration allows for insight into the thoughts of a character, presenting them to the reader in the exact method in which an individual would process them. For example, the vivid physique painted by Woolf as James is sitting on the blast cutting out dep icts from the illustrated catalogue of the Army and Navy stores, endowed the picture of a refrigerator, as his mother speaks (Woolf 12) demonstrates James processing of all that is occurring about him, offering insight into his thoughts. fleck James actions in this moment seem unremarkable, stream of consciousness narration helps to focus on an infinitesimal moment in time and elaborate upon it, a technique which Woolf calls upon practically. In essence, Woolf utilizes stream of consciousness narration to enhance the impact of synchronic moments by gain ground lengthening the description of each portion of a moment, much in the way that a specific moment in the human experience can be drawn out by the mind. As Albert maven once said, When you sit with a nice girl for two hours, it seems like two minutes. When you sit on a hot stove for two minutes, it seems like two hours-thats relativity. Woolfs use of stream of consciousness allows her audience to experience the progression of time in the same modality as her characters-as they fixate on a moment, so does the audience. The significance of this effect and of Woolfs use of stream of consciousness lies in her choice of when to employ it-she delves into the synchronic dimension of seemingly insignificant moments, focusing on the colorizes and auras (Stewart 3) of everyday living. Through this method, Woolf captures an true(p) recreation of the human experience, henceforth increasing the validity of her criticism of it.In stark contrast with her ability to extend a nanosecond on the synchronic plane, Woolfs use of brackets creates a harsh and unexpected severity and hastiness end-to-end the second portion of the novel that serves to illuminate societys desensitization to the significance of the moment. Throughout part two of the novel, Time Passes, the harsh typographical appearance of the incidental marks used by Woolf themselves (Gemmill 3) emphasizes the abrupt nature of Woolfs return to a diachron ic description of a linear progression of events. Woolfs return to a dry, delaying portrayal of events deep down these brackets signals a choice to return to linear time as she states that Prue Ramsay died that summer ( Woolf 132) and Mr. Carmichael, who was reading Virgil, blew out his candle (Woolf 127) highlights a strike syntactical pattern. It is evident that the events depicted within Woolfs brackets reflect simplicity within both their syntax and diction, causing them to be portrayed as commonplace even in cases when they are rather tragic. Each set of parentheses contains one or more brief, telegraphic sentences written with simplistic diction and a blatant lack of detail, understating the significance of the event contained within and signaling a shift to a more omniscient perspective (Sang 3). A shift from the personable, relatable stream of consciousness style to this newfound omniscience stems from Woolfs desire to highlight how desensitized society has become to eve nts such as death. To focus upon the synchronic dimension of time is to be personal, dramatic, to embody the carpe diem ideals of seizing each moment. Hence, Woolfs regression to diachronic depictions signals a step away from this ideal, and mirrors modern societys lack of concern with the significance of the moment. While it may be argued that Woolfs use of juxtaposition in terms of color is the virtually essential tool in the conveyance of her views regarding society (McCarthy 1), it is this ability to delve into and then fall away from a synchronic question of time that truly buttresses her disdain for humanitys choices. By using a entirely diachronic attempt towards the description of death, Woolf downplays its significance to suggest that an individuals priorities are go against placed in a concern with life rather than its impend end.As Woolfs characters struggle with the understanding of lifes ephemerality, many of them grasp for some sense of permanence as they preoccup y themselves with the future and whether or not they testamenting be remembered, paralleling that which Woolf believes is currently occurring in society. Mr. Ramsay fears that his work will be easily forgotten as a result of virulentity and the brevity of human life, so he seeks out some sort of permanence in the intellectual sphere which he hopes will cause his memory to stand the test of time. His attempts to make a lasting philosophical contribution demonstrate Woolfs views regarding the human involve for individuality and competitive success. Essentially, the alacrity of Mr. Ramsays frantic attempts at rising above the relaxation method of society allows insight into Woolfs distaste with the need in todays society to focus on future personal exertion rather than happiness in the present. When Mrs. Ramsay dies, causing Mr. Ramsay to lose touch with the order of the sensual world (Doyle 9), his attempts become scarcer, and his feelings of worthlessness reflect Woolfs view t hat humans rear end their sense of self-worth upon their permanence. This fixation with that which will come in the future is equivalently visible in the character of Lily Briscoe. Lily dreads the fact that one day her paintings will be thrown into the attic and never again seen by the rest of society, leading to a fear of lifes ephemerality reminiscent of Mr. Ramsays. Whereas Ramsay searches for permanence in the intellectual world, Lily turns to her artwork for comfort. Her paintings act as methods of synchronically capturing events in diachronic time, exhibiting the duality between the two dimensions of time and leading to insight as to Woolfs intent. Lilys paintings existence forgotten parallels society forgetting the significance of that which has occurred and is occurring as a result of a preoccupation with the future and that which is to come. The colors included within Lilys paintings are ones which often are associated with cheerfulness or happiness (Stewart 2), symbol ically indicating that Woolf believes humanity is forgetting the bliss that is connected with living life. In addition, Woolf includes many aspects of her life into the novel, and it is often argued that Lily may be a representation of Woolf herself, signaling that Woolf has undergone an inner struggle similar to this one (Brivic 9). Woolfs personal connection to this issue may serve as an explanation as to why she wishes for her knowledge to take on a didactic tone regarding a carpe diem mentality.Finally, during the denouement of the novel, Lily Briscoe comes to terms with the fact that her life is ephemeral and that time will progress afterward she is gone, further demonstrating Woolfs views regarding societys fixing with permanence. Lilys ability to last-placely fulfill her artistic vision comes completely after letting go of her need for permanence as she lays down her brush in extreme fatigue (Woolf 209) in the last line of the novel. This final portion of the novel is w ritten in an extremely synchronic manner as Woolf painstakingly drags out every last moment of the plot, capturing the significance of each and every detail and underscoring the significance an instant of time can have. This is done in order to mirror the human experience of self-actualization as Lily reaches a sense of closure, further validating Woolfs portrayal of time. Because this closure comes only once Lily has accepted the inevitableness of the ephemerality and transience of a mortal life, it is indisputable that Woolfs aim is to didactically demonstrate the downfalls of an obsession with the future and a refusal to accept the temporary nature of ones time on earth. This conclusion to the novel reinforces the significance of this fascination-fundamentally, Woolf posits that without recognizing the aspects of life that are truly important, humanity will not be able to reach the same self-actualization that Lily is able to accomplish. Woolf essentially wishes to curve her aud ience that embracing the synchronic dimension of time (Gemmill 5) and leading a life focused on the present rather than the future is the most meaningful manner in which to spend a lifetime.By meticulously illustrating the human experience of relativity and the progression of time through the approach of a two-dimensional interplay, Virginia Woolf is able to point out a tonality fault in modern society. Her emphasis on societys fixation with the future and straying from a carpe diem lifestyle illuminates a potentially dangerous peculiarity of that which humanity is becoming. Essentially, To the Lighthouse reveals that societys path towards living without being able to revalue the significance and importance of each and every moment in time is one which will ultimately lead to its downfall if not reversed.